Because arsenic is most toxic in its inorganic form, distinction between arsenic in its organic and inorganic species is crucial in determining potential toxicity. In January 2012, a study by Dartmouth College determined that the predominant arsenic species in 5 main US brands of infant formula, 3 brands of purees and 3 brands of second-and-third stage food is inorganic. Although levels in non-dairy formulas were significantly higher than dairy, levels were relatively low in all three categories (<1-23 ng/g). However, due to an infant's low body weight, when compared to the current WHO/EPA safe drinking water levels for adult body weight, these low levels can still result in exposure that exceeds the current water standard. Read Article

Research by the Stockholm Institute of Environmental Medicine in 2010 showed elevated concentrations of the essential elements calcium, iron, zinc, manganese and molybdenum in infant formulas and foods over breast milk. Also of concern were found elevated levels of the toxic elements arsenic, cadmium, lead and uranium. Products studied were purchased in Sweden, however most are by major manufacturers and available worldwide (Mead Johsnon, Semper, Nestlé, Holle, Vitagermine, Hipp, Organix). Read Article

In 2004, two scientific consulting companies and FDA used probabilistic software to estimate dietary intake of inorganic arsenic in U.S. children 1 to 6 years of age. Estimates were based on reported inorganic arsenic concentrations in 38 foods and in water used in cooking those foods in addition to USDA food consumption data. The average daily estimate was 3.2 ppm, with a range of 1.6 to 6.2 ppm/day (10th and 95th percentiles). The predominant food groups found to contribute inorganic arsenic intake were grain and grain products, fruits and fruit juices, rice and rice products and dairy products. Read Article

A 2010 study by UK and Spain analyzed arsenic concentrations in 10 infant rice/cereals from 5 commercial brands, 4 pureed infant foods and 21 varied rice samples. All samples were purchased at markets in the city of Alicante, Spain. Since elimination of rice from all infant diets would jeopardize gluten intolerant infants, as well as, threaten the rice farming market, the authors suggest current research focus on reducing arsenic levels in rice with higher concentrations through selective breeding and water management. Read Article

In 2006 the University of Aberdeen studied three brands of baby rice formulas made in either the UK or EU, rice source unknown. Currently, there are no set food standards for the US or EU, however 35% (1 out of 3 studied) of formulas studied would be illegal for sale in China, based on their limit of 0.15 ppm of inorganic arsenic in food. Read Article

The Food Standards Agency published the results of a survey of the concentrations of 15 metals and other elements in a wide range of commercial weaning foods and formulae for infants in September 2006. In May 2007, additional brands and samples of weaning foods were analyzed and incorporated into the original risk assessment. The key findings were 1) Inorganic arsenic and methyl mercury levels were measured in commercial weaning formulas, 2) Levels of total arsenic and mercury in weaning foods were similar to those measured in the 2006 survey and were in all cases within permitted Regulatory Limits, 3) Estimated inorganic arsenic and methyl mercury intakes have been compared with relevant safety guidelines and the 2006 estimated exposure assessment, confirming that measured levels do not give concern for the health of infants. Read Article

In 2009 Dartmouth College and the University of Arizona analyzed rice consumption and urinary arsenic concentrations of 229 pregnant women in New Hampshire. Although women who stated rice consumption within 2 days prior to urine collection reported higher concentrations of total arsenic, levels were within the range of US population as a whole. This study develops a correlation between rice consumption and elevated total arsenic concentrations, and provides valuable insight in future research in establishing risk levels and management procedures. Read Article

A US and Taiwan collaboration in 2009 suggests that the US population in general is more exposed to inorganic arsenic via food sources than drinking water. Major food sources found in this report were vegetables, fruit juices and fruits, rice, beer, wine, flour, corn and wheat. It is here estimated that approximately 10% of total arsenic exposure from foods is inorganic arsenic. Read Article

A study by the University of Aberdeen concluded that rinse washing rice, followed by cooking in a 6:1 water:rice ratio reduced inorganic arsenic content of raw rice by 45%. Read Article

A follow-up study by Cornell University selected rice samples with higher total arsenic concentrations from various locations, including US, Australia, China, Asia and Europe, to determine arsenic speciation of each. Predominately rice sourced in US, Australia and China contained the organic (non-toxic) species dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), while rice from Asia and Europe reported predominate levels of inorganic arsenic. The study suggests that genetic differences may have developed two unique rice types. Read Article

The Food Standards Agency published the results of a survey of the concentrations of 15 metals and other elements in a wide range of commercial weaning foods and formulae for infants in September 2006. In May 2007, additional brands and samples of weaning foods were analyzed and incorporated into the original risk assessment. The key findings were 1) Inorganic arsenic and methyl mercury levels were measured in commercial weaning formulas, 2) Levels of total arsenic and mercury in weaning foods were similar to those measured in the 2006 survey and were in all cases within permitted Regulatory Limits, 3) Estimated inorganic arsenic and methyl mercury intakes have been compared with relevant safety guidelines and the 2006 estimated exposure assessment, confirming that measured levels do not give concern for the health of infants. Read Article

A 2007 study by the University of Aberdeen showed arsenic levels of California grown rice to be 41% lower than rice grown in the South Central United States. This difference is believed to be due to arsenic derived pesticides used on former cotton fields in the South Central areas. No difference was found in comparisons of polished and unpolished rice of the same regions. It is suggested that certain individual groups (Hispanics, Asians, Celiac disease sufferers and infants) are potentially at a greater exposure risk to inorganic arsenic found in rice that is above the current accepted maximum level for drinking water. Read Article

Australian research in 2006 used live pig models to demonstrate arsenic bioavailability to assess possible human health risks of arsenic exposure in rice. The rice studied was supermarket purchased Basmati from India, Long White from Australia and monitored greenhouse grown Paddy rice. Supermarket purchased rice reported significantly higher concentrations of inorganic arsenic species and higher bioavailability over the greenhouse grown rice, which was higher in organic arsenic. These findings illustrate that bioavailability is considerably dependent on arsenic species, which in turn is dependent on various factors such as, type of rice plant, irrigation water, geographic environment and cooking water. Read Article

This report was prepared by Eastern Research Group, Inc. for EPA to document a 1997 expert panel discussion on arsenic toxicity and human health risk, in preparation for setting the current safe drinking water standard. Examples of topics examined are Fundamentals of Carcinogenesis, Chromosomal Abnormalities, Effects on DNA Repair and Co-Carcinogenicity. In discussing these implications for arsenic risk assessment, the panel verified many uncertainties, however there was unanimous agreement that arsenic and its metabolites do not appear to directly interact with DNA. The panel also clarified further research needs and priorities; such as, rabbits, hamsters and mice (in that order) are the closest animal models to mimic arsenic bioactivity, well-defined arsenic exposed human populations should be used to define co-carcinogenesis (i.e. influence of smoking tobacco) and primary human epithelial cell cultures should be used to determine species endpoints. Read Article

This review article presents a brief history of the Total Diet Study (TDS) conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) since its initiation in the early 1960s. Some topics covered are the primary purpose of the TDS, grounds for its admission, growth and changes over time, and examples of significant findings that lead to safer food regulations. Read Article

This web page, hosted by the National Institute of Health, contains additional links to information on environmental sources of arsenic, associated health risks and resource organizations. Read Article

This is a PRNewswire summary of the January 2012 Consumer Reports investingation of arsenic and lead in juices. Based on their results, Consumers Union, the advocacy arm of Consumer Reports, recommended that the federal government establish a standard of 3 ppb for total arsenic and 5 ppb for lead in juice. Read Article